Linking words

1. Conjunctions:

A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects parts of a sentence: either two words or two clauses in the same sentence.

1.a. Coordinating conjunctions: join grammatically similar elements: two words or clauses in the same sentence. They are: and –addition, result-, but –contrast-, yet –contrast-, for –reason, consequence-, so –result, purpose, consequence-, nor – negative alternative-, or –alternative. They normally appear preceded by a comma.

e.g. More secondary schools are implementing programs designed to increase teenagers' awareness of the dangers of drinking and driving, yet alcohol-related traffic accidents continue to be one of the leading causes of death for people between the ages of fifteen and twenty-two.

1. b. Subordinating conjunctions: connect two clauses in the same sentence. They turn the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence. There are different types depending on their meaning: time, result, reason, purpose… conjunctions.

e.g. I have been watching television since I got home at six o’clock.

2. Sentence adverbials: they are words that frequently appear at the beginning of a sentence, and are normally followed by a comma. They can…

1. connect one sentence with another sentence: e.g. I got home at six o’clock. Since then, I have been watching TV.

2. connect one sentence with the previous paragraph or the whole text: e.g. … and then I went to bed.

All in all, I had a very boring evening…

3. signal the writer’s attitude to what s/he is saying: e.g. Frankly, I wish I didn’t have a TV.

Some conjunctions can be used as sentence adverbials. However, the practice of beginning a sentence with “and”, “but”, or “or” is often considered incorrect.

Conjunctions (and prepositions)

Most of the following words are conjunctions but the words marked (P), however, are prepositions, and are followed by either a noun or a gerund (-ing form).

1. Time: after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, hardly*, no sooner*, since, then, till, until, when, whenever, while…

2. Result: and, and so, otherwise, so, so that…

3. Place: where, wherever.

4. Contrast, concession, alternatives: although, apart from (P), but, despite (P), even if/though, in spite of (P), or, nor, though, whereas, while, whilst, yet…

5. Reason: as, as a result of (P), because, because of (P), considering, due to, for, in case, since…

6. Purpose: in case, in order that, in order to, so, so as to, so that, to…

7. Conditional: as long as, even if, if, on condition that, provided (that), providing (that), so long as, unless…

8. Manner: as, as if/though, in a way, like (P)…

9. Addition: and, as well as, besides which, in addition to, not only*…

* Notice: When these words* begin the sentence, there is inversion, e.g. We had hardly left the ground when the storm broke. à Hardly had we left the ground when the storm broke.

Sentence adverbials

1. Ordering points, adding information:

Above all, additionally, also, as we shall see later, as well as that, besides, first(ly)/ second(ly)/ etc, first of all, finally, for one /another thing, furthermore, in addition, in the first/second/etc place, last(ly), more/most importantly, moreover, on top of that, what is more… 

2. Comparing, contrasting, alternatives, concessions:

Alternatively, at the same time, by contrast, conversely, despite this, even so, however, in comparison, in contrast, in like manner, in similar fashion, in spite of this, in the same way, instead, likewise, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, similarly…

3. Giving examples:

Among others, as an illustration, for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate…

4. Time:

After that, afterwards, at first, at last, at present, at the moment, at the same time, before that/then/etc, beforehand, by then/that time, finally, first, from then on, hitherto, initially, in the end, in the meantime, lastly, later on, meanwhile, next, previously, simultaneously, since then, so far, subsequently, then…

5. Reformulating, clarifying:

Actually, at least, i.e. (=that is), in fact, in other words, rather, that is (to say)…

6. Changing subject, referring to subject:

Anyhow, anyway, as far as … is concerned, as for…, as regards…, regarding…, with reference to…

7. Cause and effect, reason and result:

As a result, because of this, consequently, for this/that reason, hence, that is why, thus, therefore…

8. Concluding, summarising, generalising:

All in all, altogether, basically, essentially, generally, in brief, in conclusion, in general, in other words, in summary, on average, on the whole, to conclude, to some extent, to summarise, to sum up…